Skip to content

A resource centre from the Traffic Injury Research Foundation

Traffic Injury Research Foundation COVID-19 & Road Safety Canada & the United States

TIRF Resource Centre

Impact of COVID‑19 on Road Safety in Canada & the United States

The pandemic profoundly disrupted road safety practices and culture — influencing traffic volumes, driver behaviours, and crashes in myriad ways. This resource centre offers a comprehensive overview of those effects and outcomes, drawing on official statistics, research reports, news outlets, and surveys.

Explore the research How the review was conducted

+33%

U.S. traffic fatalities rose 2011–2021

−18%

Canadian traffic fatalities fell 2011–2020

2.5×

U.S. motorists are ~2.5 times more likely to die in a crash than Canadians

43,230

U.S. road deaths in 2021 — the most since 2005

On this page

About this resource

A comprehensive review of the pandemic’s effect on our roads

The COVID-19 pandemic profoundly disrupted road safety practices and culture in Canada and the United States (U.S.), influencing traffic volumes, driver behaviours, and crashes in myriad ways. This website contains a comprehensive overview of these effects and outcomes, drawing on official statistics, research reports, news outlets, and surveys. The review generally begins with pre-pandemic baseline data and traces changes from the peak of restrictions through 2020 and 2021.

Overall, the findings of this synthesis revealed that while COVID-19 initially reduced road risks through decreased exposure and lower traffic volumes, both countries experienced changes in driving habits and risk-taking that influenced collision frequency and severity — despite an overall decrease in traffic volume — while erasing several years of safety progress. While COVID-19 initially reduced road risks by decreasing exposure, it ultimately amplified risks through behavioural and systemic changes with lasting effects into the mid-2020s.

The outcomes of this review demonstrate not only quantitative trends but also qualitative factors, such as behavioural adaptations, providing a holistic view of how a global health crisis has intersected with transportation systems.

Methodology: how the literature was gathered

Library searches and academic websites were used to retrieve relevant published literature, including discussion papers, technical reports, journal articles, and news from recognized media outlets. Articles were located through database searches in Google Scholar, PubMed, and Google Search using keywords and phrases such as COVID-19 and road safety, COVID-19 and transportation, and COVID-19 and road crashes/collisions. The search focused primarily on traffic volumes, crash rates, crashes, and surveys of knowledge, attitudes and behaviours, and temporal factors.

A widening safety gap between neighbours

Traffic safety data highlights a widening safety gap: U.S. traffic fatalities rose by 33% (2011–2021) while Canadian fatalities dropped by 18% (2011–2020), despite similar driving cultures. U.S. motorists are approximately two and one-half times more likely to die in a vehicle crash than Canadians.

Canada’s better performance can perhaps be explained by stricter alcohol impairment laws (0.05% vs. 0.08% BAC threshold), more widespread speed enforcement cameras, stronger seat belt laws, and a nationwide motorcycle helmet requirement. But these differences cannot fully account for the significant year-to-year increases in fatal and serious injury collisions in the U.S. from 2019–2021 — while Canada, and most of the world, saw either a drop or no change after the onset of the pandemic.

Five ways the pandemic changed traffic safety

The most significant impacts on traffic safety revealed through this synthesis:

  1. 1

    Reduced traffic volumes generally decreased crashes but encouraged risky driving behaviours, leading to higher fatality rates per kilometre/mile travelled.

  2. 2

    Males are riskier and more dangerous drivers — with younger male drivers even more so.

  3. 3

    Enforcement of traffic laws is essential to reducing crashes — especially focused on impaired, distracted, and speeding driving, and non-use of seat belts.

  4. 4

    Wider and more effective use of technology to support enforcement — and improvements to road infrastructure — are essential for safe roads.

  5. 5

    A traffic safety culture needs to be re-ignited and continually encouraged with new and effective legislation, countermeasures, and prevention efforts.

Research by topic

Key findings, systematically classified

The literature review reveals several key findings, organized into four categories that create a comprehensive framework for understanding the multiple effects of the pandemic on road safety. Each topic opens with key takeaways for quick scanning — expand the detail only where you want the depth.

01 Full synthesis

Changes in Traffic Volumes & Crash Rates

How lockdowns reshaped traffic volumes — and why fewer cars didn’t mean proportionally fewer deaths.

Read the synthesis →
02 Full synthesis

Changes in Crash Severity

Why collisions became more severe even as total crashes fell — and how strained emergency response played a role.

Read the synthesis →
03 Full synthesis

Contributing Factors

Speeding, impaired and distracted driving, seatbelt non-use, roadway differences, and the role of enforcement.

Read the synthesis →
04 Full synthesis

Demographic Factors

Who was over-represented in pandemic-era crashes — driver age and sex, plus pedestrians, cyclists, and motorcyclists.

Read the synthesis →

Topic 01

Full synthesis

Changes in Traffic Volumes & Crash Rates

The COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing measures to control the spread of the disease had a profound impact on traffic volumes and crash rates in both Canada and the U.S. Social distancing measures closed schools, public places, and workplaces, and significantly reduced socializing. These drastic health safety measures also affected traffic safety: initially, it was predicted that lower traffic volumes would result in a big drop-off in crashes, with fewer traffic fatalities and serious injuries. The reality proved more complex.

Key takeaways

  • Initial lockdowns decreased mobility and reduced overall crashes.
  • Reduced traffic volumes emboldened riskier driving, leading to higher traffic fatality rates per kilometre/mile travelled.
  • Canada’s crash trends changed gradually — shaped by behaviours similar to the U.S., but likely mitigated by enforcement and health-related measures.
  • The U.S. experienced substantial fatality surges tied to speeding, impaired driving, foregoing seatbelts, and distraction.
  • Canadian provinces and territories generally had reductions in fatalities, while U.S. regions all had increases in fatality rates.

Road transportation — and thereby road safety — was among the sectors most affected during the pandemic. Canada had an ongoing trend since 2010 of decreasing traffic injuries and fatalities; in the U.S., the four years leading up to the pandemic saw a slight uptick in crashes but a gradual decline in fatalities. Yet during the pandemic, when traffic volumes were significantly reduced, fatal crash rates did not decrease proportionally — erasing previous years’ safety gains. The sections below examine these effects country by country.

Canada

Total crash-rate trends

The pandemic led to significant reductions in traffic volumes across Canada due to lockdowns, remote work, and closures of non-essential services — driving an immediate and pronounced decline in crash rates, likely from reduced exposure rather than safer driving (Vanlaar et al., 2021a). Risky behaviours such as speeding decreased from 2019 to 2020 in some locales, including Saskatoon and British Columbia, but generally increased again in 2021 as traffic volumes rebounded (Lyon et al., 2024).

−71%

Edmonton traffic volumes, Mar–Apr 2020

−76%

Canada–U.S. border passenger movements, 2020 vs 2019

67.6%

of Canadian drivers reported driving less since the pandemic began

−13.3%

vehicle-km travelled in the 12 months after the pandemic declaration

Crash rates

Despite many fewer people on Canadian roads in 2020 and a proportional drop in vehicle-kilometres travelled, total fatal crashes declined only slightly. Transport Canada (2023) reported fatalities dipped from 1,756 in 2019 to 1,746 in 2020, and serious-injury crashes fell considerably, from 8,602 to 7,981. Notably, the fatality rate per billion VKT increased from 4.4 in 2019 to 4.7 in 2020.

As restrictions lifted, fatal crashes rose again — to 1,768 in 2021, 1,931 in 2022, and 1,964 in 2023. The 11% increase between 2021 and 2023 marked the largest rise in a decade. Serious injuries also grew, from 7,981 in 2020 to 8,321 in 2021, and total injury crashes climbed from 104,265 to 108,552 over the same span.

Driver behaviour: TIRF’s Road Safety Monitor polls

A national poll conducted by TIRF as part of a special Road Safety Monitor (RSM) series on COVID-19 revealed a small but concerning proportion of drivers taking risks during the pandemic, despite not doing so before it. It was postulated that riskier driving was linked to reduced enforcement and emptier roads — and, to some extent, risk homeostasis: people comfortable with a certain level of risk increased their risk-taking to remain within their comfort zone. To put the percentages below in context: they apply to an estimated population of 26,000,000 drivers, meaning the numbers are anything but small.

Meanwhile, use of personal vehicles as the preferred method of travel grew from 42.2% pre-pandemic to 69.9% — a 65.6% increase — while use of public transit declined 89.3% (Vanlaar et al., 2020). The follow-up RSM in 2021 found these proportions grew in the years following the pandemic (Woods-Fry et al., 2021):

New risky driving behaviour among previously risk-averse Canadian drivers, 2020 vs 2021
Newly-adopted risky behaviour 2020 2021
Greatly exceeding the speed limit5.5%7.4%
Driving distracted4.2%7.4%
Driving within two hours of consuming alcohol2.4%4.1%
Driving within two hours of using drugs2.2%3.7%

Share of drivers reporting each behaviour during the pandemic despite not doing so before it. Sources: Vanlaar et al. (2020); Woods-Fry et al. (2021).

Regional crash rates

According to TIRF’s National Fatality Database, comparing 2019 to 2020 revealed a drop in total fatalities from 1,795 to 1,695 — a 5.9% decline nationwide. Only Manitoba, Newfoundland & Labrador, Quebec, and Nunavut recorded increases; most other provinces and territories saw decreases, and variations were evident with some provinces reporting stable or increased crash rates tied to shifts in driving behaviours.

Quebec

A study of non-pharmaceutical COVID-19 interventions (NPIs) emphasized that understanding their impact on road safety was important to uncover unintended consequences of the pandemic — notably fewer vehicles on the road. Reduced vehicle traffic was shown to have influenced alcohol-related and speed-related collisions, including fatalities and serious injuries, in Montréal, Québec, Laval, Longueuil, and Sherbrooke (Nazif-Munoz et al., 2025).

British Columbia

A 700% spike in vehicles impounded for excessive speeding in March 2020 was reported by Saanich police, alongside fewer overall collisions but heightened risks from faster speeds (Chan, 2020).

Alberta

Edmonton observed a 200% rise in drivers speeding more than 50 km/h above limits following the emergency declaration, contributing to stable or elevated severe crash rates despite lower volumes (Heidenreich, 2020).

Ontario

Toronto data from January to June 2020 showed fewer vehicles on the road and a simultaneous decrease in collisions — but reduced volumes also led to increased speeds, which can raise injury severity for pedestrians and cyclists (Amberber et al., 2021). Toronto Police reported a 35% increase in speeding tickets and a nearly 200% surge in stunt driving charges in mid-March 2020 versus the prior year (Fox, 2020); York Region noted a 64% rise in stunt driving overall (Venn, 2020).

Central & Eastern Canada

Saskatoon experienced a 79.3% drop in collision-related injuries in May 2020 compared to May 2019 (Saskatoon Police Service, 2020), while Halifax reported a 64% decrease in collisions in April 2020 compared to April 2019 — more positive trends in some urban centres (Halifax Regional Municipality, 2020).

Conclusion

The COVID-19 pandemic significantly altered road crash trends in Canada and the United States, intersecting public health measures with transportation behaviours in ways that produced both immediate reductions in exposure and longer-term escalations in risk. While initial lockdowns curbed overall crashes through decreased mobility, they inadvertently fostered riskier driving, leading to higher fatality rates per kilometre/mile travelled. Canada’s trends were more gradual — potentially buffered by stricter enforcement and health-related measures — while the U.S. experienced more volatile shifts, with surges attributed to emptier roads encouraging speeding, impaired driving, foregoing seatbelts, and distraction.

Canadian provinces and territories generally showed a decrease in fatalities while U.S. regions all had increases. Canada does not appear to have had the same level of traffic enforcement reductions as the U.S., and had pre-existing stricter alcohol impairment laws — an administrative .05 BAC limit in most provinces and territories alongside the federal .08 limit, whereas only a few U.S. states have BAC limits below .08.

View references for this topic ↓ Next topic: Crash Severity

Topic 02

Full synthesis

Changes in Crash Severity

During the two years of pandemic social distancing mandates there was a significant reduction in traffic volumes and vehicle crashes. However, these reductions did not correspond with a reduction in serious injury and fatal crashes per vehicle-kilometre or vehicle-mile travelled. Canada did not record changes in total injuries, serious injuries, or fatal injuries from pre-pandemic numbers through 2021 — but did see an increase in serious injury and fatal crashes per VKT. Conversely, the U.S. saw significant increases in fatal injuries per VMT, total fatal crashes, and fatalities, with increases in both 2020 and 2021, even as it recorded fewer crashes overall.

Key takeaways

  • A small percentage of drivers’ attitudes and behaviours allowed for an increase in risky driving behaviour.
  • Fewer crashes did not mean fewer serious outcomes: serious injuries and fatalities per VKT/VMT rose from 2019–2021.
  • Canada’s total serious injuries and fatalities stayed generally level across all three years, while U.S. numbers surged despite a significant drop in traffic volume.
  • The pandemic strained emergency medical services in both countries, extending response times — with rural areas hit hardest.

Reduced traffic volumes led to fewer overall vehicle crashes and fewer no-injury crashes globally. Nevertheless, this reduction did not significantly reduce crashes involving severe or fatal injuries (Qureshi et al., 2020; Stiles et al., 2023) — an inconsistency attributed to factors such as increases in speeding, impaired driving, non-use of seatbelts, and reduced traffic enforcement. Multi-year polls of Canadian and U.S. drivers revealed most drivers’ behaviour did not change during the pandemic, but a small (under 10%) yet notable proportion reported being more likely to engage in risky driving behaviours than before it (Vanlaar et al., 2021b).

How crash severity is classified

Fatal

Death occurs within 30 days of the crash

Serious

Injuries requiring hospitalization

Minor

Medical attention required, but no hospitalization

The analysis also considers property-damage-only (PDO) crashes — from minor damage to inoperable vehicles — where data are available.

Crash severity trends in Canada

Nasif-Munoz et al. (2024) studied the association between non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) and road safety across the 17 regions of Quebec, using an NPI index built from 58 interventions implemented from March 2020 to June 2022. In all regions, NPIs were associated with significant reductions in collisions and light injuries; six regions saw considerable decreases in serious injuries, and no regions reported changes in traffic fatalities. Notably, 2019 had been Canada’s safest year since 1970 for fatalities, serious injuries, and total injuries. A comparison of 2019–2021 revealed relatively little change between the years:

  • Fatal crash fluctuations were minor: 1,620 in 2019, 1,602 in 2020, rising slightly to 1,768 in 2021.
  • Fluctuations in fatalities were also small: 1,756 in 2019, 1,746 in 2020, and 1,768 in 2021.
  • Total injuries fell precipitously from 139,084 in 2019 to 104,265 in 2020, then rose 4% in 2021 (108,552) — still well below 2019.
  • Serious injuries see-sawed from 8,602 in 2019 to 7,981 in 2020 to 8,321 in 2021.

However, fatality rates measured by distance travelled and per capita both increased. The fatality rate per billion VKT rose significantly to 4.7 in 2020 from 4.4 in 2019 — nearly a 7% increase according to police-reported data (Transport Canada, 2023). Canada’s fatality rate per 100,000 population was 4.6 in 2021, about 2.5 times lower than the U.S. (Lyon et al., 2025).

A companion analysis of five Quebec cities (Montreal, Quebec City, Laval, Longueuil, and Sherbrooke) found significant reductions in alcohol-related light injuries during the strictest periods — most likely due to curfews and closures of bars and restaurants — without a significant decrease in fatalities, and no consistent overall association between the interventions and speeding-related injuries (Nasif-Munoz et al., 2025).

Emergency response times

The pandemic had a significant impact on emergency medical services (EMS). Higher call volumes related to COVID-19 infections, additional precautions (protective suits, decontamination procedures), and increased time offloading patients at hospitals produced longer response times for all medical emergencies — including vehicle crashes. Waalwijk et al. (2022) reported that extended EMS time on scene with moderately and severely injured patients increased mortality. A worldwide review found trauma-related incidents declined sharply, coinciding with a decline in road deaths (Richter et al., 2025).

Rural response times: a widening gap

Approximately 4.5 million people in the U.S. live in “ambulance deserts” — more than 25 minutes from the nearest ambulance station — with an estimated 2.3 million of them in rural counties. Eight states had fewer than three ambulances covering every 1,000 square miles (Jonk et al., 2023).

Rural response times were almost 20 minutes longer than the national average. Combining scene response, on-site care, and transport, rural regions averaged 92.8 minutes per emergency call versus a national mean of 74.1 minutes — and 155 versus 114 minutes when severe injuries required a specialized trauma centre (Turcinovic et al., 2025). This limited, delayed access to complex trauma care likely compromised patient outcomes and increased mortality in rural areas.

In Canada

EMS call volumes varied across the country — the Niagara Region saw a significant decrease in 2020, including 17% fewer motor vehicle crash calls (Ferron et al., 2021) — yet response times were disrupted and extended even where volumes fell. In Alberta, “red alerts” (no ambulances available) escalated from an average of 57 per month in 2019 to a peak of nearly 558 in September 2020, with EMS demand up 30% due in part to the pandemic (Easton, 2022).

Hamilton (Ontario) Paramedic Services experienced sustained strain: higher call volumes, periods of no ambulance availability, longer on-scene times, and longer offload times at hospitals (Strum et al., 2025). Ambulance offload delay tied to emergency department queues was shown to have a substantial impact on regional ambulance availability and response times (Li et al., 2026).

In the United States

NHTSA estimated more than 800 first responders — law enforcement, firefighters, EMS clinicians, and telecommunications professionals — died from COVID-19 between the start of the pandemic and early September 2021. Longer return-to-service times left EMS units unavailable for crash response (Mann, 2021), and longer response times have been associated with higher motor vehicle crash mortality (Byrne et al., 2019).

The strain was acute in hotspots: between March 16 and April 15, 2020, New York City’s EMS system received 30,469 more calls than the year before, with call volume up 60% on March 30 alone (Prezant et al., 2020). About 20% of FDNY staff were out sick at the end of March 2020. Non-COVID calls for service — including traffic crashes — were often triaged by 911 dispatchers. Notably, a four-state study (Colorado, Kansas, Texas, Missouri) found no differences in total EMS pre-hospital time early in the pandemic, with transport time actually significantly shorter (Jarvis et al., 2021).

View references for this topic ↓ Next topic: Contributing Factors

Topic 03

Full synthesis

Contributing Factors to Crashes

Several contributing factors — individually or in combination — significantly influence the likelihood of traffic crashes, and especially those resulting in serious injuries and fatalities. Risky driving behaviours, the type and location of roads, and the enforcement of traffic laws all played a role in both Canada and the U.S. As the pandemic progressed, both countries reported upticks in risky driving behaviours and changes in traffic enforcement — with some unique differences between the two.

This section presents

  • The degree to which risky driving behaviours changed — and how each affected serious injury and fatal crashes.
  • The change in self-reported attitudes and behaviours related to risky driving during the pandemic.
  • The unique safety challenges of rural and urban roads.
  • How enforcement practices changed during the pandemic, how the two countries differed, and the likely role enforcement played in traffic safety outcomes.

Speeding

As speed increases, so does the distance required to stop — drivers have less time to respond but need more room to stop safely. Increases in speed create a disproportionate increase in crash energy: if speed is doubled, the force of the crash is four times stronger, sharply increasing the likelihood of fatal or serious injuries (Elvik, 2005; FHWA, 2018). An analysis of NHTSA data concluded 55% of speed-related fatal crashes were due to exceeding the posted limit and 45% to driving too fast for conditions (Liu & Chen, 2009).

In Canada

In TIRF’s Road Safety Monitor polls, 5.5% of Canadian respondents self-reported being more likely to excessively speed during the pandemic — versus a significantly larger 7.6% of U.S. drivers (Vanlaar et al., 2021c). An Ontario population-based survey of 1,595 drivers found 67.2% engaged in speeding since the start of the pandemic, with 7.2% reporting increased speeding; speeders scored higher on competitive driving attitudes, drove more kilometres, and consumed more alcohol (Vingilis et al., 2024).

Police and coroner/medical examiner data show speed-related fatalities rose from 22.3% of the total in 2000 to roughly 25% in 2019 — and hit a 20-year high of 31.1% in 2021 (Brown et al., 2024). Researchers have attributed pandemic speeding to lower traffic volumes, impaired speed perception, lower perceived risk of enforcement, boredom, psychological stress, and riskier drivers simply driving more.

In the United States

Speeding on U.S. roads increased each year from the beginning of the pandemic through 2021. On Virginia’s urban highways, spring 2020 saw a 19.5% increase in drivers exceeding the limit by 5+ mph and a 38.7% increase in those exceeding it by 10+ mph versus 2019 (Wang & Cicchino, 2023). In TIRF USA’s 2021 poll, 16.9% disclosed speeding well over the limit, up from 14.0% in 2020.

Speed-related fatalities climbed from 9,592 in 2019 to 11,258 in 2020 (a 17% increase) and to 12,330 in 2021 (a further 7.9%) (Stewart, 2022; 2023). Young males dominated these deaths: males aged 15–20 accounted for 31–35% of speed-related driver deaths in every year from 2019 to 2021.

Impaired driving

Alcohol- and drug-impaired driving are well-established road safety risks. As blood alcohol concentration rises, crash risk rises exponentially. The legalization of recreational cannabis — in Canada in 2018 and in a growing list of U.S. states — has drawn more attention to drug-impaired driving: 86% of Canadians believe cannabis impairs driving ability (Public Safety Canada, 2023), while a U.S. survey found 13.5 million people aged 16+ drove under the influence of drugs in 2021 (SAMHSA, 2023).

In Canada

Small but concerning proportions of drivers reported driving after drinking during the pandemic despite not doing so before it: 2.4% in 2020, growing to 4.1% in 2021. Drug-impaired driving followed the same path, from 2.2% to 3.7% — a 68.2% increase — with cannabis the most common drug used before driving (41.2% in 2021, up 22.9%) (Vanlaar et al., 2020; Woods-Fry et al., 2021). Driving after consuming any alcohol in the past 30 days dipped from 14.6% in 2019 to 11.9% in 2020 before rebounding to 14.4% in 2021.

Fatality data stayed comparatively stable: the share of fatally injured drivers testing positive for alcohol barely moved from 2019 through 2021 (31.7%, 31.5%, 28.4%), as did positive drug tests (48%, 50.7%, 48.7%) (Brown et al., 2024). Trauma-centre studies underline the ongoing problem: across 15 Canadian trauma centres testing 8,328 injured drivers (2019 to mid-2023), more than half (54.9%) were positive for an impairing substance — depressants (28.4%), THC (16.3%), alcohol (16.1%), stimulants (12.7%), and opioids (10.9%) (Brubacher et al., 2025).

In the United States

Self-reported driving while likely over the legal limit dropped from 20% in 2019 to 16.6% in 2020, then jumped to 22.5% in 2021 — a 35.5% increase — with “often or very often” responses rising from 8% to 12.3% (Woods-Fry et al., 2020; Vanlaar et al., 2021c). Males were 143% more likely than females to report it, and in 2021, cannabis-impaired driving (15.1%) exceeded alcohol-impaired driving (13.1%) in self-reports.

Fatality data moved in step: alcohol-impaired fatal crashes rose from 10,196 in 2019 to 11,654 in 2020 and 13,384 in 2021 — a 31% increase over two years (NCSA, 2020–2022). Among 452 deceased drivers tested before versus during the pandemic, positives increased across nearly every substance: alcohol 21.8% → 28.3%, THC 20.8% → 32.7%, opioids 7.5% → 13.9% (Thomas et al., 2020).

Canada vs. U.S.: driving while believing you’re over the limit

In every recorded year, Canadians were far less likely than U.S. drivers to report driving when they believed they were over the legal alcohol limit (Barrett et al., 2023; Vanlaar et al., 2023):

Self-reported driving while over the legal limit, Canada versus United States, 2018 to 2022
Year Canada United States
20185.5%11.6%
20198.6%20.0%
20207.5%16.6%
20219.7%22.5%
202210.5%19.6%

Whereas impaired driving fatalities in Canada remained relatively stable from 2019 to 2021, recorded impaired driving fatalities in the U.S. rose a substantial 31% over the same period.

Seatbelt non-usage

Seatbelts are one of the most effective safety features in a vehicle — estimated to have saved more than 11,000 Canadian lives between 2000 and 2011 (Canada Safety Council, 2013) and 457,578 American lives between 1968 and 2019, including 20,443 in 2019 alone (Kahane & Simons, 2024). Seatbelt use by front-seat passengers reduces fatal injuries by 45% and moderate-to-severe injuries by 50% (Kahane, 2015). Drivers aged 18–24, males, and drivers in rural areas are all less likely to buckle up.

In Canada

Unbelted driver fatalities jumped from 25.6% of driver deaths in 2019 to 33.2% in 2020 — a 32% increase — before easing to 28.6% in 2021, still above pre-pandemic levels. Unbelted passenger fatalities followed the same pattern: 29.8% in 2019, 39.2% in 2020, 35.6% in 2021 (Transport Canada, 2019–2021). This mirrors the rise in other risky behaviours at the peak of social distancing — postulated to result from lower traffic volumes, reduced enforcement, and a heightened (false) sense of safety — even though an estimated 95% of Canadians overall wore seatbelts throughout (Statistics Canada, 2022).

In the United States

Approximately 47% of passenger vehicle occupant fatalities in 2019 (9,466 people) were unrestrained. That rose to 51% (10,893) in 2020 — a 14% increase despite fewer vehicle-miles travelled — and stayed elevated at 50% in 2021. Pickup drivers (60–61%) and 25-to-34-year-olds (61%) were heavily over-represented among unrestrained fatalities, and state variation was wide: from 73% of fatalities unrestrained in Nebraska (2020) and 76% in New Hampshire (2021) down to 37% in Oregon and New York (NCSA, 2021–2023).

Distracted driving

Distracted driving — using a phone, eating, adjusting infotainment, attending to passengers or pets — has become one of the most common factors in collisions, generally estimated to account for approximately 25% of fatalities in North America, and widely understood to be under-reported. A 39-country survey found one in five Canadian drivers (20.5%) and one in four U.S. drivers (25.6%) had talked on a handheld phone while driving in the past 30 days (Areal et al., 2024). Among young U.S. drivers aged 14–20, nearly one-third had interacted with their phone while driving in the past month — and parents were their top influence (Robertson et al., 2025).

In Canada

Comparing 2019 to 2021 in TIRF’s national polls, talking on a handheld phone while driving rose from 11.7% to 14.1% and texting while driving from 9.7% to 13.1% — part of a 173% increase in frequent texting since 2010 (Robertson et al., 2022). While the absolute number of distraction-related road deaths declined over two decades, the percentage of fatalities involving a distracted driver kept climbing: 19.1% in 2000, 25.8% in 2019, and 28.8% in 2021 (Brown et al., 2024). Police-reported data show the same incremental rise through the pandemic (20.8% → 21.1% → 22.5% of fatal collisions) even as VKT fell (Transport Canada, 2023).

In the United States

U.S. drivers actually self-reported slightly less phone use during the pandemic (17.1% talked on a phone while driving in 2019 versus 14.8% in 2020–21) (Vanlaar et al., 2023). Yet distraction-involved fatalities held at 3,142 in both 2019 and 2020 despite the drop in VMT, then rose to 3,522 in 2021, alongside 362,415 estimated injuries and 644 non-occupant deaths. In all three years, drivers aged 15–20 had the largest proportion of distracted-driver fatalities (NCSA, 2021–2023). A re-analysis compensating for under-reporting estimated distraction actually contributed to 28% of all U.S. traffic deaths in 2019, costing society $158 billion (Blincoe et al., 2023).

Roadways: rural vs. urban

Roadway design and location shape both crash frequency and severity. Rural roads feature higher speeds, fewer markings and lanes, wildlife, and longer emergency response times; most rural road deaths result from roadway-departure crashes, with impairment and speeding as major factors and about half of occupant fatalities unbelted. Urban roads concentrate traffic volume, signals, cyclists, and pedestrians — where higher speeds sharply increase the probability of pedestrian and cyclist fatalities (Harkey & Zeeger, 2004).

In Canada

In 2019, rural roads accounted for 824 fatal collisions (50.7%) versus 750 (46.2%) in urban areas — despite carrying far less traffic. In 2020, rural traffic fatalities rose 3.3% (to 852) even as rural injuries fell 35%; urban fatalities fell 5.5% (to 711) with injuries down 45%. As traffic returned in 2021, both areas increased again: 881 rural and 728 urban fatalities (Transport Canada, 2019–2021).

In the United States

More than 83,000 people died on rural roadways from 2017–2021 — 43% of road deaths from just 20% of the population. The rural fatality rate per 100 million VMT was roughly double the urban rate in every year: 1.66 vs 0.86 (2019), 1.84 vs 1.08 (2020), 1.74 vs 1.19 (2021). Pandemic-era increases hit both environments, but urban areas rose faster: +10% urban vs +2% rural fatalities in 2020, and +14% urban vs +5% rural in 2021 (NCSA, 2021–2024).

Traffic enforcement

As social distancing reduced traffic volumes, law enforcement agencies in both countries had to rethink traffic stops while keeping officers safe — and risky driving surged at exactly that moment. The two countries responded very differently, and experienced very different outcomes in road fatalities as a result.

In Canada: automation and targeted campaigns

Canadian enforcement shifted toward automated technology and targeted campaigns rather than scaling back. Toronto implemented Automated Speed Enforcement in school zones, producing a 45% reduction in speeding (Howard et al., 2025); Calgary’s intersection safety camera tickets jumped 15% in May 2020 versus May 2019; Ottawa police concentrated physical enforcement on impaired driving, excessive speeding, and street racing. Saanich police reported a 700% increase in cars impounded for excessive speed (Chan, 2020), New Brunswick RCMP issued 16.9% more speeding tickets in 2020 than 2019, and stunting charges in RCMP-patrolled areas rose 142%.

In the United States: a sharp pull-back

More than half of 1,000+ responding U.S. law enforcement agencies enacted policies explicitly reducing proactive enforcement — including traffic enforcement — in both March and May 2020 (Lum et al., 2020). High-visibility enforcement campaigns were postponed, training was cancelled, academies were delayed, and staffing shortfalls grew. Early-2020 citations fell to fewer than 700 per 100 million VMT, down from a pre-pandemic average of about 1,500 (PERF, 2025).

The pull-back persisted well beyond 2020, compounded by a national reckoning over the role of policing following the murder of George Floyd: San Francisco and Seattle each saw a 90% decline in traffic citations between 2019 and 2023; the Texas Department of Public Safety reported 40% fewer vehicle stops between 2019 and 2022; Fairfax County, Virginia citations dropped 70% in 2020; and New Jersey speeding citations fell from 181,913 in 2019 to 130,108 in 2021 (Sams, 2023). In 2022, Philadelphia became the first major U.S. city to ban police stops for low-level offences.

Why enforcement matters

During the height of the pandemic, Canada reported a reduction in fatalities and did not appear to experience a protracted reduction in traffic enforcement. The U.S., in many jurisdictions, significantly reduced enforcement — and saw a substantial uptick in fatalities, but not crashes. Canada’s targeted enforcement, automated speed enforcement, and stricter alcohol impairment laws should be considered influencing factors in its ability to respond to risky driving and limit serious crashes. The crash data for both countries highlight the importance of traffic enforcement in reducing fatalities and serious injuries.

View references for this topic ↓ Next topic: Demographic Factors

Topic 04

Full synthesis

Demographics of Road Users Involved in Crashes

The age and sex of drivers involved in serious injury and fatal crashes has consistently shown that young males are the most dangerous roadway users — a fact that held true both before the pandemic and during the ensuing periods of social distancing. This section compares Canada and the U.S. on the prevalence of drivers in fatal and serious injury crashes by age and sex, and presents information on fatally and seriously injured active road users: pedestrians, cyclists, and motorcyclists.

Key takeaways

  • Younger drivers (aged 34 or less) are far more likely to be involved in crashes than drivers aged 35 or older.
  • Males are much more likely to be involved in fatal and serious injury crashes than females.
  • Lacking the proper infrastructure changes, pedestrian deaths are not likely to decrease.
  • Impairment plays an over-sized role in fatalities and serious injuries for all types of active road users.
  • Helmet laws for motorcyclists and cyclists save lives.

Driver age

Novice and younger drivers have a higher crash risk than middle-aged drivers, and drivers over 80 experience a much greater crash risk comparable to young drivers. Young drivers carrying passengers are significantly more likely to be in an at-fault fatal crash — a risk that grows with two or more young passengers, especially males (Preusser et al., 1998) — while older drivers’ crash culpability concentrates in right turns and signal locations as flexibility, sight, and reaction times decline (Pae et al., 2025).

In Canada

In Ontario, comparing the 30 days before and after the March 2020 shelter-in-place order, drivers aged 80+ went from over-represented (21 per 1,000 injuries and fatalities) to a substantial reduction (8 per 1,000), and road deaths among 18-to-20-year-olds fell 27% — early evidence of how physical distancing initially reduced harm as fewer people drove (Rapoport et al., 2021).

Across 2019–2021, drivers of all ages consistently represented about half of all crash fatalities. In 2019, the 65+ age group had the largest share of all fatalities (24.8%); by 2020 and 2021 the 25–34 group had climbed to the largest share of fatally injured drivers (19.5% and 21.1%) and led serious injuries in every year (Transport Canada, 2019–2021). Drivers aged 16–19 and 65+ had the highest rates of distraction among the fatally injured, while those aged 20–34 were most likely to test positive for drugs (Brown et al., 2024).

In the United States

Young drivers were persistently over-represented: in 2019 they held 5.3% of licences but appeared in 7.8% of fatal crashes; in 2021, 5% of licences but 8.4% of fatal-crash drivers — and more than half (52%) of young drivers killed in 2021 were not wearing a seatbelt. Young driver deaths rose 11% in 2020 alone (Stewart, 2022; 2023; NCSA, 2021).

2020 fatality increases hit every age group except children under nine and those 65+, with the sharpest rise among 25-to-34-year-olds (+17%). In 2021 every age category increased, including a 14% rebound among the 65+ group (7,489 deaths). Older drivers had a higher fatality rate per VMT — likely reflecting fragility rather than risk-taking, since they were more likely to wear seatbelts (Stewart, 2022; 2023).

Summary: In both countries, younger drivers’ share of serious injuries and fatalities was disproportionately greater than their share of licensed drivers throughout 2019–2021. Unlike the U.S., Canadian drivers aged 65+ had the highest percentage of fatalities all three years; in the U.S., that group was the only one to decline in 2020, while 25–34-year-olds saw the greatest increases each year.

Driver sex

The risk of crash involvement is historically higher for young male drivers, and the elevated risk continues as they age. Males were 2.33 times more likely to have a single-vehicle crash and 1.66 times more likely to crash in the dark (Cullen et al., 2021); males have a higher risk of fatal crashes per distance travelled, while females have a higher risk of non-fatal crashes and hospitalization (Massie et al., 1997). Across six national TIRF polls from 2019–2021, males in both countries were consistently much more likely to self-report impaired driving, excessive speeding, non-use of seatbelts, and phone use.

In Canada

In 2019, males represented 65% of passenger vehicle fatalities — 2.5 deaths per 100,000 population versus 1.33 for females — with more single-vehicle and speed-related crashes, while females had more non-fatal crashes (Statistics Canada, 2022). Ontario’s annual reports show the pattern held through the pandemic: male drivers were involved in 74.6% of fatal collisions in 2019, 78.5% in 2020, and 76.8% in 2021 (ORSAR, 2022–2024).

In the United States

After years of decline, per-capita occupant deaths rose for both sexes: male deaths climbed from 9.1 per 100,000 in 2019 to 9.9 in 2020 and 10.7 in 2021, while female rates went from 4.7 to 4.8 to 5.4 — males remained more than twice as likely to die in a collision in all three years. Total male fatalities grew from 25,819 to 30,964 (+19.9%) and female fatalities from 10,495 to 12,135 (+15.6%) over the period (Stewart, 2023).

Active transportation users

Active transportation covers road users who are not drivers — pedestrians, cyclists, and riders of human-powered or small mobility modes. These modes reduce vehicle-kilometres travelled, cut emissions, and improve health, but their users face higher risk on roads shared with vehicles because they lack a vehicle’s protective exterior. The pandemic reshaped active transportation dramatically — walking and cycling surged while transit use collapsed.

Pedestrians

Most pedestrian fatalities occur in urban areas, especially where sidewalks, crosswalks, refuge islands, and adequate lighting are missing. Vehicle design matters too: large pickups and SUVs strike a pedestrian’s torso and head rather than legs, causing more severe injuries, while automatic emergency braking that detects pedestrians reduced pedestrian crash risk 25–27% in daylight — but showed no effect in unlit darkness or at 50+ mph (Cicchino, 2022).

In Canada

Pedestrian deaths fluctuated modestly: 301 in 2019 (17.1% of all road fatalities), down 5.2% to 286 in 2020, then rebounding to 307 in 2021 — slightly above pre-pandemic levels at under one death per day. Serious pedestrian injuries declined steadily across the period, from 314 to 266 to 248 (Transport Canada, 2023). Quebec’s five-city NPI study found reductions in pedestrian injuries and fatalities during the most stringent restrictions (Nazif-Munoz et al., 2025).

In the United States

U.S. pedestrian fatalities have risen 78% since 2009. A brief 2.7% decline in 2019 (6,205 deaths) ended in 2020 despite the huge drop in driving: 6,565 pedestrians were killed (+4.7%), then 7,388 in 2021 (+12.5% over 2020, +19% over 2019) — roughly 20 deaths per day. More than three-quarters occurred in darkness (Stewart, 2023).

Summary: Canada averaged fewer than one pedestrian death a day with no appreciable change across the three years; the U.S. averaged more than 18 a day with incremental increases each year. Even accounting for population, the pedestrian share of traffic deaths remains greater in the U.S. — a disparity that is both notable and warrants attention.

Cyclists

Cycling boomed during the pandemic as a low-cost, sustainable mode with low transmission risk: U.S. bicycle sales revenue surged 64% to $7 billion, and Canada hit peak revenue of C$1.77 billion (Statista, 2025). In New York City, bike-share ridership fell far less (−71%) than subway ridership (−90%) (Teixeira & Lopes, 2020). Infrastructure matters: Canadian count data show sites with high-comfort cycling infrastructure carry more than double the cycling volumes of unadapted sites (Bonsma-Fisher et al., 2026).

In Canada

Despite increased bicycle sales and traffic, cyclist fatalities did not rise significantly overall: 38 fatal crashes in 2019 (2.2% of fatal crashes), 50 in 2020, and 44 in 2021 (Transport Canada, 2020–2022). One exception: during the first 30 days of Ontario’s state of emergency, cyclist deaths increased 14% (Rapoport et al., 2021).

In the United States

Cyclist deaths rose every year: 846 in 2019, 938 in 2020 (+9%), and 966 in 2021. Injuries dropped a remarkable 21% in 2020 (to 38,886) before climbing 7% in 2021. Male cyclists were six to seven times more likely than females to be killed, and 78–85% of cyclist deaths occurred in urban areas (NCSA, 2021–2023).

Motorcyclists

Motorcycles account for roughly 3% of registered vehicles in both countries, yet motorcyclists represented a disproportionate 10.6–14% of total traffic fatalities from 2019–2021. Impairment and non-use of helmets were significant factors in motorcycle deaths — and unlike Canada, where every jurisdiction has a helmet law, U.S. helmet requirements vary by state.

In Canada

Motorcyclists (including moped riders) accounted for 187 fatalities in 2019 (10.6% of all traffic deaths). Although VKT declined in 2020, motorcycle fatalities rose 29.4% to 242 — 13.9% of all fatalities — easing only slightly to 232 in 2021, still well above pre-pandemic levels (Transport Canada, 2019–2021). Ontario recorded a 15% increase in fatal motorcycle crashes in the first 30 days of restrictions alone (Rapoport et al., 2021).

In the United States

Motorcyclist deaths climbed from 5,014 in 2019 to 5,579 in 2020 (+11.3%, the highest rate since 1975) and 5,932 in 2021 — 14% of all traffic fatalities in each year. Riders were 24–29 times more likely to die per VMT than passenger vehicle occupants; 30–36% of fatal crashes involved unlicensed riders and 28–29% involved alcohol impairment. In states without universal helmet laws, 55–57% of motorcyclists killed were not wearing a helmet, versus 9–11% in states with universal laws (NCSA, 2021–2023).

Summary: Both countries reported motorcycle fatality increases during the first year of the pandemic, with motorcyclists persistently over-represented relative to their share of registrations. The stark helmet-law contrast in U.S. state data makes the case plainly: universal helmet requirements save lives.

View references for this topic ↓ Continue to the Resource Centre

Resource Centre

Publications & References

Every source cited across this resource centre. Use the search to filter by author, organization, year, or keyword.

  • Abdel, A.M., Islam, M., R., Islam, Z. (2022). Risk-Compensation Trends in Road Safety during COVID-19. Sustainable Analysis of Traffic Crash Risk, Journal Article April 2022. Source ↗
  • Abdullah, A., (2024). Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Emergency Medical Services. Emergency Health Services Journal, pages 12-19, January-June 2024. DOI: 10.4103/EHSJ.EHSJ_4_24. Source ↗
  • Adriazola-Steil C., Pérez-Barbosa D., Batista B., Luke N., Li W., Sharpin A., Bech, L., Colbeck, J., Erikson, A., Harms, L., Hartmann, A., McLeod, K., & Nout, L. (2021) Safe Bicycle Lane Design Principles: Responding to Cycling Needs in Cities during COVID and Beyond. November 8, 2021. World Resources Institute. Source ↗
  • Al Amiry, A. & Maguire, B.J. (2021) Emergency Medical Services (EMS) Calls During COVID-19: Early Lessons Learned for Systems Planning (A Narrative Review). Open Access Emerg Med. 2021 Sep 7;13:407-414. doi: 10.2147/OAEM.S324568. PMID: 34522146; PMCID: PMC8434918. Source ↗
  • Alruwaili, A. & Alanazy, A.R.M. (2022). Prehospital Time Interval for Urban and Rural Emergency Medical Services: A Systematic Literature Review. Healthcare (Basel). 2022 Nov 29;10(12):2391. doi: 10.3390/healthcare10122391. PMID: 36553915; PMCID: PMC9778378. Source ↗
  • Amberber, N., Howard, A.W., Winters, M., M., Harris, M.A., Pike, I., Machperson, A., Cloutier, M.S., Richmond, S.A., Hagel, B.E., Fuselli, P., Rothman, L., (Jan 2021). Road Traffic Injury During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Cured or a Continued Threat? Journal of Public Health, University of Toronto. Source ↗
  • American Automobile Association Foundation For Traffic Safety: Traffic Safety Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Fatal Crashes Relative to Pre-Pandemic Trends, United States, (May–December 2020) Source ↗
  • American Automobile Association Foundation for Traffic Safety. (2021). 2020 Traffic Safety Culture Index (Technical Report). AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety. Source ↗
  • Areal A., Pires C., Pita R., Marques P., & Trigoso J. (2024). Distraction (mobile phone use) & fatigue. ESRA3 Thematic report Nr. 3. ESRA project (E-Survey of Road users’ Attitudes). (2024-R-20-EN). Portuguese Road Safety Association. Source ↗
  • Automotive Insurers Association of Canada. (2021) Quarterly Report: National Vehicle Kilometres Traveled Metrics – 2019 to 2021. Ottawa, Ontario: AIA. Source ↗
  • Barnes S.R., Beland, L-P., Huh, J., & Kim, D. (2020). The Effect of COVID-19 Lockdown on Mobility and Traffic Accidents: Evidence from Louisiana. Global Labor Organization, Discussion Paper, No. 616. July 28, 2020. Source ↗
  • Barrett, H., Delavary, M., Lyon, C., Vanlaar, W.G.M., & Robertson, R.D. (2023). Road Safety Monitor 2023: Drinking and Driving in Canada. Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Beck, L.F., Downs, J., Stevens, M.R., & Sauber-Schatz, E.K. (2017). Rural and urban differences in passenger-vehicle–occupant deaths and seat belt use among adults — United States, 2014. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Surveillance Summaries, National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information, September 22, 2017; 66 (No. SS-17):1–13. DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.ss6617a1. Source ↗
  • Betz, M.E., Fowler, N.R., Han, S.D., Hill, L.L., Johnson, R.L., Meador, L., Omeragic, F., Peterson, R.A., & DiGuiseppi, C. (2022). Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Older Adult Driving in the United States. J Appl Gerontol. 2022 Aug;41(8):1821-1830. doi: 10.1177/07334648221091556. Epub 2022 May 18. PMID: 35583182; PMCID: PMC9378355.
  • Blincoe, L., Miller, T., Wang, J.-S., Swedler, D., Coughlin, T., Lawrence, B., Guo, F., Klauer, S., & Dingus, T. (2023, February). The economic and societal impact of motor vehicle crashes, 2019 (Revised) (Report No. DOT HS 813 403). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • Bonsma-Fisher, M., Zanotto, M., Walker, K.L., Benoit, S., Sara F.L. Kirk, S.F.L., and Meghan Winters, M. (2026). Cycling rate trends from Canada’s national volunteer cycling count, Journal of Cycling and Micromobility Research, Volume 7, 2026, 100100, ISSN 2950-1059 Source ↗
  • Brain on Board. Traffic injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Brown, S., Vanlaar, W.G.M. & Robertson, R.D. (2024). Distraction-Related Fatal Collisions in Canada: 2000-2021, May 2024. Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Brown, S., Vanlaar, W.G.M. & Robertson, R.D. (2024). Drug Use in Fatal Collisions in Canada: 2000-2021, May 2024. Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Brubacher, J.R., Chan, H., Erdelyi, S., Staples, J.A., Asbridge, M., & Mann, R.E. (2022). Cannabis Legalization and Detection of Tetrahydrocannabinol in Injured Drivers. The New England Journal of Medicine. Source ↗
  • Brubacher, J.R., Chan, H., Simmons, S., Erdelyi, S., Likhodi, S., Lee J, Vaillancourt, C. & the National Drug Driving Research Group (2023). The Ontario Drug Driving Study, March 2023. Vancouver, BC. Department of Emergency Medicine, University of British Columbia. Source ↗
  • Brubacher, J.R., Erdelyi, S., Chan, H., Simmons, S., Atkinson, P., Besserer, F., Clarke, D.B., Davis, P., Daoust, R., Émond, M., Eppler, J., Lee, J.S., MacPherson, A., Magee, K., Mercier, E., Ohle, R., Parsons, M,, Rao, J., Rowe, B.H., Taylor, J., Vaillancourt, C., & Wishart, I. (2025). Prevalence of Impairing Substance Use in Injured Drivers. JAMA Network Open. 2025 Apr 1;8(4):e256379. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.6379. PMID: 40261650; PMCID: PMC12015673. Source ↗
  • Bureau of Transportation Statistics (2020). Traffic Volume Trends, June 2020. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration dot_50674_DS1. Source ↗
  • Byrne, J. P., Mann, N. C., Dai, M., Mason, S. A., Karanicolas, P., Rizoli, S., & Nathens, A. B. (2019). Association between emergency medical service response time and motor vehicle crash mortality in the United States. JAMA Surgery, 154(4):286–293. Source ↗
  • Canadian Safety Council (2013). Safety on the Road Ahead, May 14, 2013. Source ↗
  • Carter, D., 2020. Effects of COVID-19 Shutdown on Crashes and Travel in NC. North Carolina, Department of Transportation. Transportation Research Board (TRB) Webinar (2020). Source ↗
  • Chan, A. (2020) Saanich sees spike in speeders as roads empty due to COVID-19. CTV News, April 7, 2020. Source ↗
  • Children's Active Transportation. Elsevier. 2018. Source ↗
  • Cicchino, J.B. (2022), Effects of automatic braking systems on pedestrian crash risk. Accident Analysis and Prevention May 2022. Source ↗
  • Cicchino, J.B. (2022). Effects of automatic emergency braking systems on pedestrian crash risk, Accident Analysis & Prevention, Volume 172, 2022, 106686, ISSN 0001-4575. Source ↗
  • City of Calgary Newsroom (April 2020). Changing travel trends during COVID-19. Source ↗
  • City of Toronto. (April 2020). City of Toronto Urges Drivers to Obey Rules of the Road. Toronto: Ontario. Source ↗
  • Cook, S., Stevenson, L., Aldred, R., Kendall, M. & Cohen, T. (2022). “More than walking and cycling: What is ‘active travel’?” Transport Policy. Volume 126, September 2022, Pages 151-161. Source ↗
  • Cullen, P., Möller, H., Woodward, M., Senserrick, T., Boufous, S., Rogers, K., Brown, J., & Ivers, R. (2021). Are there sex differences in crash and crash-related injury between men and women? A 13-year cohort study of young drivers in Australia. SSM-Population Health. 2021 May 12;14:100816. Doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100816. PMID: 34141353; PMCID: PMC8141461. Source ↗
  • Doucette, M.L., Tucker, A., Auguste, M.E., Watkins, A., Green, C., Pereira, F.E., Borrup, K.T., Shapiro, D., & Lapidus, G. Initial impact of COVID-19’s stay-at-home order on motor vehicle traffic and crash patterns in Connecticut: an interrupted time series analysis. Injury Prevention, 27 (1) (February 2021), pp. 3-9,10.1136/injuryprev-2020-043945 Source ↗
  • Doulabi, S., & Hassan, H. M. (2023). Near-term impact of COVID-19 pandemic on seniors' crash size and severity. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 185, June 2023, 107037. Source ↗
  • Easton, R., February 28,2022, Alberta’s ambulance response times have worsened from the start of the pandemic, data shows, CBC News. Source ↗
  • Ebrahim Shaik, M., & Ahmed, S. (2022). An overview of the impact of COVID-19 on road traffic safety and travel behavior. Transportation Engineering, 9, 100119. Source ↗
  • Ekeh, A., Nguapa, L., Mussin Phillips, C., & Cardosi, A. (2025). Cannabis Prevalence in Drivers Involved in Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities over 6-Year Period, Scientific Forum, American College of Surgeons (ACS) Clinical Congress 2025.
  • Elvik, R., Christensen, P., & Helene Amundsen, A. (2004). Speed and road accidents: an evaluation of the power model. Institute of Transport Economics, Norwegian Centre for Transport Research. Report number 740/2004; ISBN: 82-480-0451-1. Source ↗
  • Faria, R., Russo, B., & Ryan, A., (2025). Investigating the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Traffic Crash Injury Outcomes among Different Demographic Groups.” Findings, September 4, 2025. https:/​/​doi.org/​10.32866/​001c.143776.
  • Federal Highway Administration (2018). Self-Enforcing Roadways: A Guidance Report, Chapter 2, The Relationship Between Speed and Safety. U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration Highway Safety Programs. Source ↗
  • Ferenchak, N., (August 2022). COVID-19 and Traffic Safety: Exploring Exposure, Crash Frequency and Severity, and Roadway and Network Design. Tran-SET, Transportation Consortium of South-Central States. Source ↗
  • Ferenchak, Nicholas N., (Sep 2023). US road safety during COVID-19: motorist, pedestrian and bicyclist fatality trends. DOI: 10.1108/IJDRBE-09-2022-0091. Source ↗
  • Ferron, R., Agarwal, G., Cooper, R. & Munkley, D. (2021). The effect of COVID-19 on emergency medical service call volumes and patient acuity: a cross-sectional study in Niagara, Ontario. BMC Emergency Medicine 21, 39. Source ↗
  • Fox, C. (2020). Toronto police report more speeding, stunt driving during COVID-19 pandemic. CTV News. April 2, 2020. Source ↗
  • Gong, Y., Lu, P., & Yang, X. T., (2023) Impact of COVID-19 on traffic safety from the “Lockdown” to the “New Normal”: A case study of Utah, Accident Analysis & Prevention, Volume 184, May 2023, 106995. Source ↗
  • Gupta, N., Bamney, A., Rostami, A., Kamjoo, E., & Savolainen, P.T. (2023). How did the COVID-19 pandemic affect driver speed selection and crash risk on rural freeways? Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, Volume 97, 2023, Pages 181-206, ISSN 1369-8478 Source ↗
  • Halifax Regional Municipality, (2020): Traffic Collisions. Vehicle / Pedestrian Collisions. Source ↗
  • Harkey, D.L. & Zeeger, C.V. (2004). PEDSAFE: Pedestrian Safety Guide and Countermeasure Selection System, September 2004. FHWA-SA-04-003. Federal Highway Administration. U.S. Department of Transportation. Source ↗
  • Harrell, E. & Davis, E. (2023) Contacts between police and the public, 2018 – statistical tables, U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics February 2023. Source ↗
  • Heidenreich, P., (April 2020). Recent uptick in speeding on Edmonton roads concerns mayor and city official. Global News. ton-drivers-speedingcoronavirus-covid-19-iveson/ Source ↗
  • Howard, A.W., Batomen, B., Zubair, S., Cloutier, M-S., Macpherson, A.K., & Rothman, L. (2025). Automated speed enforcement reduced vehicle speeds in school zones in Toronto: a prospective quasi-experimental study Injury Prevention Published Online First: 24 July 2025. doi: 10.1136/ip-2024-045561. Source ↗
  • Hughes, J.E., Kaffine, D., & Kaffine, L. (2023). Decline in Traffic Congestion Increased Crash Severity in Wake of COVID-19. Transportation Research Record. Vol. 2677(4) pages 892-903. Sage Publications. Source ↗
  • Insurance Corporation of British Columbia (2021). Contraventions Data (Contains information licensed under ICBC’s Open Data Licence). Source ↗
  • Insurance Institute for Highway Safety Highway Loss Data Institute & Traffic Injury Research Foundation (2025). Strong road safety policies have helped keep Canada on track, study shows, July 31, 2025. Source ↗
  • International Transport Forum (ITF), road safety annual report, country profile, Canada report 2023 Source ↗
  • Islam, M. R., Abdel-Aty, M., Islam, Z., & Zhang, S. (2022). Risk-Compensation Trends in Road Safety during COVID-19. Sustainability, 14(9), 5057. Source ↗
  • Jarvis, S., Salottolo, K., Berg, G.M., Carrick, M., Caiafa, R., Hamilton, D., Banton, K., Lieser, M., & Bar-Or, D. Examining emergency medical services' prehospital transport times for trauma patients during COVID-19, The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, Volume 44, 2021, Pages 33-37, ISSN 0735-6757 Source ↗
  • Jennings W.G. & Perez N.M. (2020). The Immediate Impact of COVID-19 on Law Enforcement in the United States. American Journal of Criminal Justice. 2020;45(4):690-701. doi: 10.1007/s12103-020-09536-2. Epub 2020 Jun 6. PMID: 32837154; PMCID: PMC7275851. Source ↗
  • Jonk, Y., Milkowski, C., Croll, Z., & Pearson, K. (2023). Ambulance Deserts: Geographic Disparities in the Provision of Ambulance Services [Chartbook]. University of Southern Maine, Muskie School, Maine Rural Health Research Center. Source ↗
  • Kahane, C. J. (2015, January). Lives saved by vehicle safety technologies and associated Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards, 1960 to 2012 – Passenger cars and LTVs – With reviews of 26 FMVSS and the effectiveness of their associated safety technologies in reducing fatalities, injuries, and crashes. (Report No. DOT HS 812 069). Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • Kahane, C. J., & Simons, J. F. (2024, December). Fatalities, injuries, and crashes prevented by vehicle safety technologies and associated FMVSS, 1968 to 2019 – Passenger cars and LTVs (Report No. DOT HS 813 611). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • Kamga, C., Moghimi, R., Vicuna, P., Mudigonda, S., & Tchamna, R. (2020). Mobility Trends in New York City during COVID-19 Pandemic: Analyses of Transportation Modes throughout April 2020 [cited 2020 July 9]. Available from: University Transportation Research Center. 8404201/234328d0-d3c2-4846-97a1-3b1daf745b22.pd Source ↗
  • Karmali, S., Saxena, S., Richards, O. K., Thompson, W., McFaull, S., & Pike, I. (2024). What was the impact of COVID-19 restrictions on unintentional injuries, in Canada and globally? A scoping review investigating how lockdown measures impacted the global burden of unintentional injury. Frontiers in Public Health, 12. Source ↗
  • Kraus S. & Koch N. (2021). Provisional COVID-19 infrastructure induces large, rapid increases in cycling. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America; National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information. PNAS. 2021;13:2021. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2024399118. Source ↗
  • Li, M., Zhong, X., Goldstein, J., Jensen, J. L., Hawco, T., Carter, A. J. E., & Vanberkel, P. (2026). An Empirical Analysis of the Effect of Ambulance Offload Delay on the Efficiency of the Ambulance System. Applied Sciences, 16(4), 2074. Source ↗
  • Lin, L., Shi, F., & Li, W. (2021). Assessing inequality, irregularity, and severity regarding road traffic safety during COVID-19. Scientific Reports, June 23, 2021, 11(1), 13147 (2021). Source ↗
  • Liu, C. & Chen, Chou-Lin (2009). An Analysis of Speeding-Related Crashes: Definitions and the Effects of Road Environments. Technical report, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • Love, A., Greenberger, M., Ye Wang, Y., & Baumgartner, F.R. (2025). “Distracted Partners: Why Police Traffic Enforcement is Inefficient.” Policy Studies Journal 00(0): 1–13. Source ↗
  • Lum, C. 2021. Perspectives on Policing: Cynthia Lum. Annual Review Criminology. 4:19-25. Source ↗
  • Lyon, C., Brown, S., Vanlaar, W.G.M. & Robertson, R.D. (2019). Road Safety Monitor 2019: Drinking and driving attitudes and practices in Canada. Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Lyon, C., Vanlaar, WGM., & Robertson, R.D. (2024). The impact of COVID-19 on transportation-related and risky driving behaviors in Canada, Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, Volume 100, 2024, Pages 13-21, ISSN 1369-8478 Source ↗
  • Lyon, C., Delavary, M., & Weast, R.A. (2025). A comparison of recent crash fatality trends in Canada and the United States: Why do they differ? Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, (July 2025) Source ↗
  • Mamri, A., Pereira, C.C.M., Gilani,m V.N.M., Batomen, B., Brown, T.G., Cloutier, M-S., Paquet, C., Giroux, C., Turmel, E., Tremblay, J., Vanlaar, W., & Nazif-Munoz, J.I. (2024) Towards a comprehensive COVID-19 non-pharmaceutical interventions’ index for the province of Quebec. BMC Research Notes (2024) 17:280 Source ↗
  • Mann, N. C. (2021). EMS by the numbers: Impact of COVID-19 (September 9th, 2021). NEMSIS Technical Assistance Center. Source ↗
  • Massie, D.L., Green, P.E., & Campbell, K.L. (1997). Crash involvement rates by driver gender and the role of average mileage. Accident Analysis & Prevention, Volume 29, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 675-685, ISSN 0001-4575 Source ↗
  • National Association of State EMS Officials for Healthcare Resilience Task Force: EMS/911 (2020) Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2020, October). Early estimate of motor vehicle traffic fatalities for the first half (Jan–Jun) of 2020 (Crash•Stats Brief Statistical Summary. Report No. DOT HS 813 004). Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2021, April). Distracted driving 2019 (Research Note. Report No. DOT HS 813 111) National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2021, April). Motorcycles: 2019 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 112). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2021, September). Occupant protection in passenger vehicles: 2019 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 176). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2021, October). Speeding: 2019 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 194). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2021, October). State traffic data: 2019 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 183). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2021, October). Bicyclists and other cyclists: 2019 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 197). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2021, November). Rural/urban comparison of motor vehicle traffic fatalities: 2019 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 206). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2022, May). Distracted driving 2020 (Research Note. Report No. DOT HS 813 309). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2022, June). Speeding: 2020 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 320). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2022, May). Motorcycles: 2020 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 306). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2022, June). Passenger vehicles: 2020 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 323). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2022, June). Bicyclists and other cyclists: 2020 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 322). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2022, July). Rural/ urban comparison of traffic fatalities: 2020 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 336). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2022, October, Revised). Occupant protection in passenger vehicles: 2020 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 326). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2023, May). Occupant protection in passenger vehicles: 2021 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 449). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2023, June, Revised). Motorcycles: 2021 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 466). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2023, June). Alcohol-impaired driving: 2021 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 450). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2023, June). Bicyclists and other cyclists: 2021 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 484). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2023, June, Revised). Passenger vehicles: 2021 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 474). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2023, September). State traffic data: 2021 (data Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 509). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2023, October). Summary of motor vehicle traffic crashes: 2021 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 515). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2024, May, Revised). Rural/urban comparison of motor vehicle traffic fatalities: 2021 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 488). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2025, May). Alcohol Impaired Driving: 2023 data (Traffic Safety Facts: Report No. DOT HS 813 713). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • National Highway Traffic Safety Administration: 2020 Fatality Data Show Increased Traffic Fatalities During Pandemic. Source ↗
  • NationMaster (2007). Transport, motor vehicles per 1,000 people: Countries Compared. Source ↗
  • Nazif-Munoz, J.I., Batomen, B., Brown, T.G., Pereira, C.C.M., Cloutier, M-S., Giroux, C., Mamri, A., Gilani, V.N.M., Ouimet, M.C., Paquet, C., Tremblay, J., Turmel, E., & Vanlaar, W. (2024). The impact of non-pharmaceutical COVID-19 interventions on collisions, traffic injuries and fatalities across Qu´ebec. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 26 (2024) 101136. Source ↗
  • Nazif-Munoz, J.I., Batomen, B., Brown, T.G., Pereira, C.C.M., Cloutier, M-S., Giroux, C., Mamri, A., Gilani, V.N.M., Ouimet, M.C., Paquet, C., Turmel, E., & Vanlaar, W.G.M. (2025). Impact of non-pharmaceutical COVID-19 interventions on cyclist and pedestrian injuries in five cities of the province of Qu’ebec, Journal of Transport & Health 41 (2025) 101975.
  • Nazif-Munoz, J.I., Batomen, B., Brown, T.G., Pereira, C.C.M., Cloutier, M-S., Giroux, C., Mamri, A., Gilani, V.N.M., Ouimet, M.C., Paquet, C., Turmel, E., & Vanlaar, W.G.M. (2025). Influence of non-pharmaceutical COVID-19 interventions on speed-related and alcohol-related traffic injuries in five cities of the province of Qu’ebec, Open access Source ↗
  • Neelam, B., Ponnathota, C., Tumu, M., & Senbel, S. (2024). Driving Through Crisis: A Comparative Analysis of Road Accidents Before, During, and After the Pandemic. In: Daimi, K., Al Sadoon, A. (eds) Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Advances in Computing Research (ACR’24). ACR 2024. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol 956. Springer, Cham. Source ↗
  • Office of Behavioral Safety Research. (2021, October). Continuation of research on traffic safety during the COVID19 public health emergency: January – June 2021. (Report No. DOT HS 813 210). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • Ontario Road Safety Annual Report 2019 (2022). Source ↗
  • Ontario Road Safety Annual Report 2020 (2023). Source ↗
  • Ontario Road Safety Annual Report 2021 (2024). Source ↗
  • Pae, G., Davis, J., Cavanaugh, J., Zhu, M. & Hamann, C. (2025). Predictors of driving errors contributing to crashes in older adults across age groups, 2010 to 2020, Journal of Safety Research, Volume 92, 2025, Pages 40-47, ISSN 0022-4375 Source ↗
  • Paquette, N.M., Paquet, M.C., Turmel, C., É., & Vanlaar, W. (2025). Influence of non-pharmaceutical COVID-19 interventions on speed-related and alcohol-related traffic injuries in five cities of the province of Québec, Canada. Injury Prevention, ip–045481. Source ↗
  • Parker M., Li M., Bouzaghrane, M., Obeid H., Hayes D., Frick K., Rodríguez D., Sengupta R., Walker J., & Chatman D. Public transit use in the United States in the era of COVID-19: transit riders' travel behavior in the COVID-19 impact and recovery period. Transport Policy, Volume 111, September 2021, Pages 53-62. 2021;111:53–62. doi: 10.1016/j.tranpol.2021.07.005. Source ↗
  • PEW Research Center (2024) Many Americans perceive a rise in dangerous driving; 78% see cellphone distraction as a major problem. Source ↗
  • Pilgrim E, O’Brien K, Margolin J, Francis E. EMS on the front lines dealing with ‘madness,’ sleeping in their cars to avoid infecting their families. ABC News; 2020. Source ↗
  • Police Executive Research Forum (2025) Shifting traffic enforcement and creating a culture of responsibility. Source ↗
  • Preusser DF, Ferguson SA, & Williams A.F. (1998). The effect of teenage passengers on the fatal crash risk of teenage drivers. Accident; Analysis and Prevention, Volume 30, Issue 2, March 1998, Pages 217-222. Source ↗
  • Prezant, D.J., Lancet, E.A., Zeig-Owens, R., Lai, P.H., Appel, D., Webber, M.P., Braun, J., Hall, C.B., Asaeda, G., Kaufman, B., & Weiden, M.D. (2020). System impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on New York City's emergency medical services. J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open. 2020 Nov 9;1(6):1205-1213. doi: 10.1002/emp2.12301. PMID: 33392524; PMCID: PMC7771735. System impacts of the COVID‐19 pandemic on New York City's emergency medical services - PMC
  • Public Safety Canada (2023) 2023 Annual National Data Report to Inform Trends and Patterns in Drug-Impaired Driving. Public Safety Canada. Source ↗
  • Qureshi, A.I., Huang, W., Khan, S., Lobanova, I., Siddiq, F., Gomez, C.R., & Suri, M.F.K. 2020 Mandated societal lockdown and road traffic accidents. Accident; Analysis and Prevention. National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information. 146 (2020), Article 105747. Source ↗
  • Rahman, Md. M., Hernandez, S., & Albatayneh, R., M.R., (2025). Assessing the impact of COVID-19 on driver injury severities in fixed-object passenger car crashes: Insights from temporal and partially constrained modeling analysis, Analytic Methods in Accident Research, Volume 47. Source ↗
  • Rapoport, M. J., Chee, J. N., Aljenabi, N., Byrne, P. A., Naglie, G., Ilari, F., Elzohairy, Y., Vingilis, E., & Mulsant, B. H. (2021). Impact of COVID-19 on motor vehicle injuries and fatalities in older adults in Ontario, Canada. Accident; Analysis and Prevention, 157, 106195. Source ↗
  • Richter H, Schneider M, Eisenberger J, Jafari N, Haumann H, Häske D. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on prehospital emergency medical service: a scoping review. Front Public Health. 2025 Mar 19;13:1543150. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2025.1543150. PMID: 40177094; PMCID: PMC11962900. Source ↗
  • Robertson, R.D., Simmons, S., Woods-Fry, H. and Vanlaar, W.G.M. (2022). Road Safety Monitor 2021: Distracted Driving Attitudes and Practices, 2004-2021. Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Robertson, R.D., Delavary, M., Wicklund, C., and Bowman, K. (2025). Youth Distracted Driving Survey: National Results, April 2025. National Distracted Driving Coalition. Source ↗
  • Roe CM, Rosnick CB, Colletta A, & Babulal GM (2021). Reaction to a Pandemic: Social Distancing and Driving Among Older Adults During COVID-19. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 40(3), 263–267. 10.1177/0733464820966516 [PubMed: 33554720] Source ↗
  • Sams, J. (2023). TransUnion: Police gave out fewer tickets as Highway Death Rate climbed. Claims Journal. Source ↗
  • Saskatoon Police Service (2020) Forms and Publications: Crime Stats Reports. Source ↗
  • Sheveland, A.C., Luchman, J.N., Mendelson, J., Xie, J., Bleiberg, M.A., Eby, D.W., Molnar, L.J., & Walton, B.R. (2020). Psychological Constructs Related to Seat Belt Use: A Nationally Representative Survey Study. Accident and Analysis Prevention. 2020 Dec;148:105715. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2020.105715. Epub 2020 Oct 8. PMID: 33038864. Source ↗
  • Shilling, F., & Waetjen, D. (2020). Special Report (Update): Impact of COVID19 on California Traffic Accidents. Road Ecology Center, University of California, Davis. Source ↗
  • Sorenson, D. NPD Group; 2021. The Cycling Market Pedals Ahead in 2021. Source ↗
  • Statista Research Department (2025). Number of motor vehicles registered in the United States from 1990 to 2023. Source ↗
  • Statista Research Department (2025). Bicycles - Canada – Statistics and Facts. Source ↗
  • Statista Research Department (2025). U.S. Bicycle Industry – Statistics and Facts. Source ↗
  • Statistics Canada (2022) Circumstances surrounding passenger vehicle fatalities in Canada, 2019. Source ↗
  • Statistics Canada (2022) Vehicle registrations, 2021. Source ↗
  • Steinberger, F., Schroeter, R., & Watling, C.N. (2017). From road distraction to safe driving: evaluating the effects of boredom and gamification on driving behaviour, physiological arousal, and subjective experience. Computers in Human Behavior, 75 (2017), pp. 714-726. Source ↗
  • Stewart, T. (2022, March). Overview of motor vehicle crashes in 2020 (Report No. DOT HS 813 266). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • Stewart, T. (2023). Overview of motor vehicle traffic crashes in 2021 (Report No. DOT HS 813 435). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • Stiles, J., Kar, A., Lee, J., & Miller, H.J. Lower Volumes, Higher Speeds: Changes to Crash Type, Timing, and Severity on Urban Roads from COVID-19 Stay-at-Home Policies (2023). Transportation Research Record, National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information. April 2023;2677(4):15-27. doi: 10.1177/03611981211044454. Epub 2021 Sep 23. PMID: 37153167; PMCID: PMC10149494. Source ↗
  • Strum, R.P., McLeod, B., Mondoux, S., Miller, P., & Costa, A.P, (2025). Post-pandemic growth in 9-1-1 paramedioc calls and emergency department transports surpasses pre-pandemic rates in the COVID-19 era: implications for paramedic resource planning. Prehospital Emergency Care, 29(3), 266-273. Source ↗
  • Substance Abuse Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality (2023). Results from the 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Source ↗
  • Sutherland, M., McKenney, M., & Elkbuli, A. Vehicle related injury patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic: What has changed? The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, Volume 38, Issue 9, 2020, Pages 1710-1714, ISSN 0735-6757 Source ↗
  • Taha, I., & Abdulhai, B., (2020). Comparing data for the GTHA’s major freeways: March 2019 and March 2020. University of Toronto Transportation Research Institute.
  • Tefft, B.C., Villavicencio, L., Benson, A., Arnold, L.S., Kim, W., Añorve, V. & Horrey, W.J. (2022). Self-Reported Risky Driving in Relation to Changes in Amount of Driving During the COVID-19 Pandemic (Research Brief). Washington, D.C.: AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety. Source ↗
  • Teixeira J.F., Lopes M. (2020) The link between bike sharing and subway use during the COVID-19 pandemic: the case-study of New York's Citi bike. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives. 2020;6 doi: 10.1016/j.trip.2020.100166. Source ↗
  • Teoh, E.R. (2023). Motorcycles registered in the United States, 2002-2023. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. Source ↗
  • Thomas, III, F.D., Bloomberg, R.D., & Van Dyk, J. (2010). Evaluation of the First Year of the Washington Nighttime Seat Belt Enforcement Program. Dunlap and Associates DOT HS 811 295. Source ↗
  • Thomas, F. D., Berning, A., Darrah, J., Graham, L.A., Blomberg, R.D., Griggs, C., Crandall, M., Schulman, C., Kozar, R., Neavyn, M., Cunningham, K., Ehsani, J., Fell, J., Whitehill, J., Babu, K., Lai, J., & Rayner, M. (2020, October). Drug and alcohol prevalence in seriously and fatally injured road users before and during the COVID-19 public health emergency (Report No. DOT HS 813 018). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • Thomas, F. D., Berning, A., Darrah, J., Graham, L. A., Blomberg, R. D., Griggs, C., & Rayner, M. (2020). Drug and alcohol prevalence in seriously and fatally injured road users before and during the COVID-19 public health emergency (No. DOT HS 813 013). United States. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Office of Behavioral Safety Research. Source ↗
  • Traffic Injury Research Foundation (2026). Traffic Injury Research Foundation National Fatality Database (accessed February 10, 2026).
  • Traffic Injury Research Foundation (2026). Traffic Injury Research Foundation National Fatality Database (accessed March 26, 2026).
  • Traffic Safety Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Fatal Crashes in 2020–2022; Research Brief, Driver Behavior and Performance, AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety. Source ↗
  • Transport Canada, Canadian Motor Vehicle Traffic Collision Statistics: 2019: Source ↗
  • Transport Canada, Canadian Motor Vehicle Traffic Collision Statistics; 2020: Source ↗
  • Transport Canada, Canadian Motor Vehicle Traffic Collision Statistics; 2021: Source ↗
  • Transport Canada, Canadian Motor Vehicle Traffic Statistics: 2023. Source ↗
  • Tucker, A. &. Marsh, K.L (2021). Speeding through the pandemic: Perceptual and psychological factors associated with speeding during the COVID-19 stay-at-home period, Accident Analysis & Prevention, Volume 159, 2021, 106225, ISSN 0001-4575 Source ↗
  • Turcinovic, I., Wilson, C.T., & Khan, L. (2025) Emergency medical services response times in rural areas lag by over 20 minutes compared to national average, October 3, 2025 American College of Surgeons Clinical Congress 2025: Source ↗
  • U.S. Census Bureau (2025). American Community Survey Data Trends in Rates of Bicycling and Walking for Commuting. Data from Table B08006 "Sex of Workers by Means of Transportation to Work." Source ↗
  • U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration Bureau of Transportation Statistics (2020). Traffic Volume Trends, June 2020. dot_50674_DS1. Source ↗
  • U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration (2021) U.S. Driving Last Year was Lowest in Two Decades. February 25, 2021. Source ↗
  • U.S. Department of Transportation. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Office of Behavioral Safety Research (2021) Update to Special Reports on Traffic Safety during the COVID-19 Public Health Emergency: Fourth Quarter Data [Traffic Safety Facts]. Report Number: DOT HS 813 135. Source ↗
  • U.S. Department of Transportation National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Traffic Safety Facts: A Compilation of Motor Vehicle Traffic Crash Data 2023. Source ↗
  • Vanlaar, W.G.M., Lyon, C., Wicklund, C. & Robertson, R.D. (2019) Alcohol-impaired driving in the United States: Results from the 2019 TIRF USA Road Safety Monitor. Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Vanlaar, W.G.M., Woods-Fry, H., Lyon, C., & Robertson, R. D. (2020) Road Safety Monitor 2020: The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Travel Behaviour and Road Safety. Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Vanlaar, W.G.M., Woods-Fry, H. and Robertson, R.D. (2020) Road Safety Monitor 2020: Drinking and Driving in Canada. Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Vanlaar, W.G.M., Brown, S., & Robertson, R.D. (2021a) Road Safety Monitor 2021: Drinking & Driving in Canada. Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Vanlaar, W.G.M., Woods-Fry, Barrett, H. H., Lyon, C., Brown, S., Wicklund, C., Robertson, R.D. (2021b). The impact of COVID-19 on road safety in Canada and the United States, Accident Analysis & Prevention, Volume 160. Source ↗
  • Vanlaar, W.G.M., Brown, S., Wicklund, C., & Robertson, R.D. (2021c): Alcohol-impaired driving & COVID-19 in the United States: Results from the 2021 TIRF USA Road Safety Monitor 2021. Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Vanlaar, W.G.M., Lyon, C., Simmons, S., Wicklund, C., & Robertson, R.D. (2023). TIRF USA Road Safety Monitor 2022; Alcohol-impaired Driving and COVID-19 in the United States. Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Vanlaar, W.G.M., Lyon, C., & Robertson, R.D., (2024). The impact of COVID-19 on transportation-related and risky driving behaviors in Canada, Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, Volume 100 Source ↗
  • Venn, D. (2020). York Region police report increase in stunt driving, domestic incidents amid COVID-19 pandemic. Toronto Star April 21, 2020. Source ↗
  • Vingilis, V., Seeley, J., Wickens, C.M., Jonah, B., Johnson, J., Rapoport, M.J., Beirness, D., & Boase, P. (2024). COVID-19 and speeding: Results of population-based survey of Ontario drivers, Journal of Safety Research, Volume 91, 2024, Pages 58-67, ISSN 0022-4375 Source ↗
  • Vision Zero Edmonton: 2020 Annual Report. Source ↗
  • Waalwijk, J.F., van der Sluijs, R., Lokerman, R.D., Fiddelers, A.A.A., Hietbrink, F., Leenen, L.P.H., Poeze, M., & van Heijl, M.; Pre-hospital Trauma Triage Research Collaborative (PTTRC). The impact of prehospital time intervals on mortality in moderately and severely injured patients. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2022 Mar 1;92(3):520-527. doi: 10.1097/TA.0000000000003380. PMID: 34407005. Source ↗
  • Wagner, E., Atkins, R., Berning, A., Robbins, A., Watson, C., & Anderle, J. (2020, October). Examination of the traffic safety environment during the second quarter of 2020: Special report (Report No. DOT HS 813 011). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source ↗
  • Wang, J. & Cicchino, J.B. (2023). Changes in speeding on Virginia roads during the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, Traffic Injury Prevention, Volume 24, Issue 1, 2023, Pages 38-43, ISSN 1538-9588. Source ↗
  • Wickens, C.M., Vingilis, E., Agic, B., Beirness, D., Brubacher, J., Chen, S., Johnson, J., Jonah, B., Rapoport, M., Sanches, M., Seeley, J., & Stoduto, G., 2026. Changes in driving after use of alcohol, cannabis, or both substances during the COVID-19 pandemic: Surveying a representative sample of Canadian drivers, Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, Volume 116, 2026, 103408, ISSN 1369-8478 Source ↗
  • Woods-Fry, H., Vanlaar, W.G.M., Lyon, C., Brown, S., & Robertson, R.D. (2019). Road Safety Monitor 2019: Trends in Marijuana Use Among Canadian Drivers. Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Woods-Fry, H., Robertson, R.D., & Vanlaar, W.G.M. (2020). Road Safety Monitor 2020: Trends in Marijuana Use Among Canadian Drivers. Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Woods-Fry, H., Vanlaar, W.G.M., Wicklund, C., & Robertson, R.D. (2020). Alcohol-Impaired Driving & COVID-19 in the United States: Results from the 2020 TIRF USA RSM. Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Woods-Fry, H., Vanlaar, W.G.M., & Robertson, R.D. (2021). COVID-19 Road Safety Monitor 2021: The Impact of the Pnademic on Road Safety & Mobility, Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Source ↗
  • Yasin, Y.J., Grivna, M. & Abu-Zidan, F.M. (2021) Global impact of COVID-19 pandemic on road traffic collisions. World Journal of Emergency Surgery 16, 51. September 28, 2021. Source ↗

Contact us

Questions about this research?

Get in touch with the TIRF team for media inquiries, data requests, or questions about this research.

Traffic Injury Research Foundation

Registered Charity No. 10813 5641 RR0001

Mockup only — this form is not wired up.